Aizenman, M., & Kelley, G. (1988). The incidence of violence and
acquaintance rape in dating relationships among college men and women.
Journal of College Student Development, 29, 305-311. (A sample of actively
dating college students <204 women and 140 men> responded to a survey
examining courtship violence. Authors report that there were no significant
differences between the sexes in self reported perpetration of physical
abuse.)
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual
partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651-680.
(Meta-analyses of sex differences in physical aggression indicate that women
were more likely than men to ¡°use one or more acts of physical aggression and
to use such acts more frequently.¡± In terms of injuries, women were somewhat
more likely to be injured, and analyses reveal that 62% of those injured were
women.)
Archer, J. (2002). Sex differences in physically aggressive acts
between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent
Behavior, 7, 213-351. (Analyzing responses to the Conflict Tactic Scale and
using a data set somewhat different from the previous 2000 publication, the
author reports that women are more likely than men to throw something at their
partners, as well as slap, kick, bite, punch and hit with an object. Men were
more likely than women to strangle, choke, or beat up their partners.)
Archer, J., & Ray, N. (1989). Dating violence in the United Kingdom:
a preliminary study. Aggressive Behavior, 15, 337-343. (Twenty three dating
couples completed the Conflict Tactics scale. Results indicate that women
were significantly more likely than their male partners to express physical
violence. Authors also report that, "measures of partner agreement were high"
and that the correlation between past and present violence was low.)
Arias, I., Samios, M., & O'Leary, K. D. (1987). Prevalence and
correlates of physical aggression during courtship. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 2, 82-90. (Used Conflict Tactics Scale with a sample of 270
undergraduates <95 men, 175 women> and found 30% of men and 49% of women
reported using some form of aggression in their dating histories with a
greater percentage of women engaging in severe physical aggression.)
Arias, I., & Johnson, P. (1989). Evaluations of physical aggression
among intimate dyads. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 298-307. (Used
Conflict Tactics Scale-CTS- with a sample of 103 male and 99 female
undergraduates. Both men and women had similar experience with dating
violence, 19% of women and 18% of men admitted being physically aggressive. A
significantly greater percentage of women thought self-defense was a
legitimate reason for men to be aggressive, while a greater percentage of men
thought slapping was a legitimate response for a man or woman if their partner
was sexually unfaithful.)
Arriaga, X. B., & Foshee, V. A. (2004). Adolescent dating violence.
Do adolescents follow in their friends' or their parents' footsteps? Journal
of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 162-184. (A modified version of Conflict
Tactics Scale was administered on two occasions, 6 months apart, to 526
adolescents, <280 girls, 246 boys> whose median age was 13. Results reveal
that 28% of girls reported perpetrating violence with their partners <17%
moderate, 11% severe> on occasion one, while 42% of girls reported
perpetrating violence <25% moderate, 17% severe> on occasion two. For boys,
11% reported perpetrating violence <6% moderate, 5% severe> on occasion one,
while 21% reported perpetrating violence <6% moderate, 15% severe> on occasion
two. In terms of victimization, 33% of girls, and 38% of boys reported being
victims of partner aggression on occasion one and 47% of girls and 49% of boys
reported victimization on occasion two.
Bernard, M. L., & Bernard, J. L. (1983). Violent intimacy: The family
as a model for love relationships. Family Relations, 32, 283-286. (Surveyed
461 college students, 168 men, 293 women, with regard to dating violence.
Found that 15% of the men admitted to physically abusing their partners, while
21% of women admitted to physically abusing their partners.)
Billingham, R. E., & Sack, A. R. (1986). Courtship violence and the
interactive status of the relationship. Journal of Adolescent Research, 1,
315-325. (Using CTS with 526 university students <167 men, 359 women> found
Similar rates of mutual violence but with women reporting higher rates of
violence initiation when partner had not--9% vs 3%.)
Bland, R., & Orne, H. (1986). Family violence and psychiatric
disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 129-137. (In interviews with
1,200 randomly selected Canadians <489 men, 711 women> found that women both
engaged in and initiated violence at higher rates than their male partners.)
Bohannon, J. R., Dosser Jr., D. A., & Lindley, S. E. (1995). Using
couple data to determine domestic violence rates: An attempt to replicate
previous work. Violence and Victims, 10, 133-41. (Authors report that in a
sample of 94 military couples 11% of wives and 7% of husbands were physically
aggressive, as reported by the wives.)
Bookwala, J. (2002). The role of own and perceived partner attachment
in relationship aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 84-100. (In
a sample of 161 undergraduates, 34.3% of women <n=35> reported being victims
of partner aggression compared to 55.9% <n=33> of men.)
Bookwala, J., Frieze, I. H., Smith, C., & Ryan, K. (1992). Predictors
of dating violence: A multi variate analysis. Violence and Victims, 7,
297-311. (Used CTS with 305 college students <227 women, 78 men> and found
that 133 women and 43 men experienced violence in a current or recent dating
relationship. Authors reports that "women reported the expression of as much
or more violence in their relationships as men." While most violence in
relationships appears to be mutual--36% reported by women, 38% by men-- women
report initiating violence with non violent partners more frequently than men
<22% vs 17%>).
Brinkerhoff, M., & Lupri, E. (1988). Interspousal violence. Canadian
Journal of Sociology, 13, 407-434. (Examined Interspousal violence in a
representative sample of 562 couples in Calgary, Canada. Used Conflict Tactics
Scale and found twice as much wife-to-husband as husband-to-wife severe
violence <10.7% vs 4.8%>. The overall violence rate for husbands was 10.3%
while the overall violence rate for wives was 13.2%. Violence was
significantly higher in younger and childless couples. Results suggest that
male violence decreased with higher educational attainment, while female
violence increased.)
Brown, G. (2004). Gender as a factor in the response of the
law-enforcement system to violence against partners. Sexuality and Culture,
8, (3-4), 3-139. (Summarizes partner violence data from the 1999 Canadian
General Social Survey <GSS>. The GSS is based on a representative sample of
25,876 persons. Overall in the 12-month period preceding the survey, an
estimated 3% Canadian women and 2% of Canadian men reported experiencing
violence from their partners. During the 5 year period from 1995-1999, an
estimated 8% of Canadian women and 7% of Canadian men reported violence from
their partners. Reviewed police and legal responses to partner violence in
Edmonton, Canada and concludes that ". . . men who are involved in disputes
with their partners, whether as alleged victims or as alleged offenders or
both, are disadvantaged and treated less favorably than women by the
law-enforcement system at almost every step.")
Brush, L. D. (1990). Violent Acts and injurious outcomes in married
couples: Methodological issues in the National Survey of Families and
Households. Gender & Society, 4, 56-67. (Used the Conflict Tactics scale in a
large national survey, n=5,474, and found that women engage in same amount of
spousal violence as men.)
Brutz, J., & Ingoldsby, B. B. (1984). Conflict resolution in Quaker
families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 21-26. (Used Conflict
Tactics Scale with a sample of 288 Quakers <130 men, 158 women> and found a
slightly higher rate of female to male violence <15.2%> than male to female
violence <14.6%>.)
Burke, P. J., Stets, J. E., & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1988). Gender
identity, self-esteem, and physical and sexual abuse in dating relationships.
Social Psychology Quarterly, 51, 272-285. (A sample of 505 college students
<298 women, 207 men> completed the CTS. Authors reports that they found "no
significant difference between men and women in reporting inflicting or
sustaining physical abuse." Specifically, within a one year period they found
that 14% of the men and 18% of the women reported inflicting physical abuse,
while 10% of the men and 14% of the women reported sustaining physical abuse.)
Caetano, R., Schafter, J., Field, C., & Nelson, S. M. (2002).
Agreement on reports of intimate partner violence among white, Black, and
Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17,
1308-1322. (A probability sample of 1635 couples was interviewed and assessed
with the CTS. Agreement concerning intimate partner violence was about 40%,
with no differences reported across ethnicities. Women significantly reported
perpetrating more partner violence than men in all three ethnic groups.)
Capaldi, D. M. & Crosby, L. (1997). Observed and reported
psychological and physical aggression in young, at-risk couples. Social
Development, 6, 184-206. (A sample of 118 young men and their dating partners
were surveyed regarding their own physical aggression as well as that of their
partners. Findings reveal that 31% of men and 36% of women engaged "in an act
of physical aggression against their current partner.")
Capaldi, D. M. & Owen, L. D. (2001). Physical aggression in a
community sample of at-risk young couples: Gender comparisons for high
frequency, injury, and fear. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(3), 425-440.
Drawn from a community based at-risk sample, 159 young couples were assessed
with the Conflict Tactics scale and measures of self reported injuries.
Findings indicated that 9.4% of men and 13.2% of women perpetrated frequent
physical aggression toward their partners. Contrary to expectations, 13% of
men and 9% of women, indicated that they were physically injured at least
once. Authors report "2% of the men and none of the women indicate that they
had been hurt by their partners between five and nine times."
Carlson, B. E. (1987). Dating violence: a research review and
comparison with spouse abuse. Social Casework, 68, 16-23. (Reviews research
on dating violence and finds that men and women are equally likely to aggress
against their partners and that "the frequency of aggressive acts is inversely
related to the likelihood of their causing physical injury.")
Carrado, M., George, M. J., Loxam, E., Jones, L., & Templar, D.
(1996). Aggression in British heterosexual relationships: a descriptive
analysis. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 401-415. (In a representative sample of
British men <n=894> and women <n=971> it was found, using a modified version
of the CTS, that 18% of the men and 13% of the women reported being victims of
physical violence at some point in their heterosexual relationships. With
regard to current relationships, 11% of men and 5% of women reported being
victims of partner aggression.)
Cascardi, M., Langhinrichsen, J., & Vivian, D. (1992). Marital
aggression: Impact, injury, and health correlates for husbands and wives.
Archives of Internal Medicine, 152, 1178-1184. (Examined 93 couples seeking
marital therapy. Found using the CTS and other information that 71% reported
at least one incident of physical aggression in past year. While men and women
were equally likely to perpetrate violence, women reported more severe
injuries. Half of the wives and two thirds of the husbands reported no
injuries as a result of all aggression, but wives sustained more injuries as a
result of mild aggression.)
Caulfield, M. B., & Riggs, D. S. (1992). The assessment of dating
aggression: Empirical evaluation of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 4, 549-558. (Used CTS with a sample of 667 unmarried
college students <268 men and 399 women> and found on a number of items
significantly higher responses of physical violence on part of women. For
example, 19% of women slapped their male partner while 7% of men slapped their
partners, 13% of women kicked, bit, or hit their partners with a fist while
only 3.1% of men engaged in this activity.)
Clark, M. L., Beckett, J., Wells, M., & Dungee-Anderson, D. (1994).
Courtship Violence among African-American college students. Journal of Black
Psychology, 20, (3), 264-281. (A sample of 311 African-American college
students <76 men, 235 women> responded to the CTS. Findings reveal that 41%
of men and 33% of women reported being physically abused by a dating partner.)
Claxton-Oldfield, S. & Arsenault, J. (1999). The initiation of
physically aggressive behaviour by female university students toward their
male partners: Prevalence and the reasons offered for such behaviors.
Unpublished manuscript. (In a sample of 168 actively dating female
undergraduates at a Canadian university, 26% indicated that they initiated
physical aggression toward their male partners. Most common reason for such
behavior was because partner was not listening to them.)
Coney, N. S., & Mackey, W. C. (1999). The feminization of domestic
violence in America: The woozle effect goes beyond rhetoric. Journal of Men¡¯s
Studies, 8, (1) 45-58. (Authors review the domestic violence literature and
report that while society in general as well as the media portray women as
¡°recipients of domestic violence...epidemiological surveys on the
distribution of violent behavior between adult partners suggest gender
parity.¡±)
Cook, P. W. (1997). Abused men. The hidden side of domestic
violence. Westport, CN.: Praeger. (Presents the evidence, empirical and
personal, for male spousal victimization. Examines resistance to acceptance
of findings and offers solutions to reduce domestic violence.)
Corry, C. E., Fiebert, M. S., & Pizzy, E. (2002). Controlling domestic
violence against men. Available: www.familytx.org/research/Control_DV_against_men.pdf Earlier version
presented at Sixth International Conference on Family Violence, San Diego, CA.
(A critical examination of men as victims of partner violence.)
Cunradi, C. B., Caetano, R., Clark, C. L., & Schafer, J. (1999).
Alcohol-related problems and intimate partner violence among white, Black, and
Hispanic couples in the U.S. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research,
23, 1492-1501. (A probability sample of 1440 couples <565 white, 358 Black,
527 Hispanic> was obtained from the 1995 National Alcohol Survey. Subjects
completed the Conflict Tactics Scale. Ethnicity results reveal that overall
rates of partner aggression were similar for whites and Hispanic while Black
rates were significantly higher. In terms of gender, white men and women had
similar rates of partner aggression, Hispanic women were somewhat more
aggressive than Hispanic men and Black men were more aggressive than Black
women. Alcohol related problems were a predictor of intimate partner violence
in Black couples.)
Deal, J. E., & Wampler, K. S. (1986). Dating violence: The primacy of
previous experience. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 3,
457-471. (Of 410 university students <295 women, 115 men> responding to CTS
and other instruments, it was revealed that 47% experienced some violence in
dating relationships. The majority of experiences were reciprocal. When not
reciprocal men were three times more likely than women to report being
victims. Violent experiences in previous relationships was the best predictor
of violence in current relationships.)
DeKeseredy, W. S. & Schwartz, M. D. (1998). Woman abuse on campus.
Results from the Canadian National survey. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (A large
sample <1,835 women; 1,307 men> of Canadian college students completed the
Conflict Tactics Scale. Results reveal that women report engaging in higher
rates of violence than men. Specifically, 46.1% of women reported engaging in
some physical violence in intimate relationship since leaving high school.
With 38% employing "minor" violence and 19% employing "severe" violence.)
DeMaris, A. (1992). Male versus female initiation of aggression: The
case of courtship violence. In E. C. Viano (Ed.), Intimate violence:
interdisciplinary perspectives. (pp. 111-120). Bristol, PA: Taylor & Francis.
(Examined a sample of 865 white and black college students with regard to the
initiation of violence in their dating experience. Found that 218 subjects,
80 men and 138 women, had experienced or expressed violence in current or
recent dating relationships. Results indicate that "when one partner could be
said to be the usual initiator of violence, that partner was most often the
women. This finding was the same for both black and white respondents.")
Dutton, D. G. & Nicholls, T. L. (In press.) The gender paradigm in
domestic violence research and theory: the conflict of theory and data.
Aggression and Violent Behavior. (A review and analysis of the data regarding
male victimization. Critical of feminist approaches that minimize female
perpetration and trivialize male injury.)
Ernst, A. A., Nick, T. G., Weiss, S. J., Houry, D., & Mills, T.
(1997). Domestic violence in an inner-city ED. Annals of Emergency Medicine,
30, 190-197. (Assessed 516 patients <233 men, 283 women> in a New Orleans
inner-city emergency Department with the Index of Spousal Abuse, a scale to
measure domestic violence. Found that 28% of the men and 33% of the women <a
nonsignificant difference>, were victims of past physical violence while 20%
of the men and 19% of the women reported being current victims of physical
violence. In terms of ethnicity, 82% of subjects were African-American.
Authors report that there was a significant difference in the number of women
vs. men who reported past abuse to the police ,19% of women, 6% of men.>)
Farrell, W. (1999). Women can¡¯t hear what men don¡¯t say. New York:
Tarcher/Putnam. See Chapter 6. (Pp. 123-162; 323-329.) An excellent social
and political analysis of couple violence.)
Feather, N. T. (1996). Domestic violence, gender and perceptions of
justice. Sex Roles, 35, 507-519. (Subjects <109 men, 111 women> from
Adelaide, South Australia, were presented a hypothetical scenario in which
either a husband or wife perpetrated domestic violence. Participants were
significantly more negative in their evaluation of the husband than the wife,
were more sympathetic to the wife and believed that the husband deserved a
harsher penalty for his behavior.)
Felson, R. B. (2002). Violence and Gender Reexamined. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association. (Scholarly review and analysis of the
literature. Author concludes that, "Women are just as likely as men to be
victims of violence from their partners. . . ." Also "casts doubt on the
battered wife syndrome as an explanation for why women kill their male
partners.")
Fiebert, M. S., & Gonzalez, D. M. (1997). Women who initiate assaults:
The reasons offered for such behavior. Psychological Reports, 80, 583-590. (A
sample of 968 women, drawn primarily from college courses in the Southern
California area, were surveyed regarding their initiation of physical assaults
on their male partners. 29% of the women, n=285, revealed that they initiated
assaults during the past five years. Women in their 20's were more likely to
aggress than women aged 30 and above. In terms of reasons, women appear to
aggress because they did not believe that their male victims would be injured
or would retaliate. Women also claimed that they assaulted their male
partners because they wished to engage their attention, particularly
emotionally.)
Fiebert, M. S. (1996). College students' perception of men as victims
of women's assaultive behavior. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 82, 49-50. (Three
hundred seventy one college students <91 men, 280 women> were surveyed
regarding their knowledge and acceptance of the research finding regarding
female assaultive behavior. The majority of subjects (63%) were unaware of the
finding that women assault men as frequently as men assault women; a slightly
higher percentage of women than men (39% vs 32%) indicated an awareness of
this finding. With regard to accepting the validity of these findings a
majority of subjects (65%) endorsed such a result with a slightly higher
percentage of men (70% vs 64%)indicating their acceptance of this finding.)
Flynn, C. P. (1990). Relationship violence by women: issues and
implications. Family Relations, 36, 295-299. (A review/analysis article that
states, "researchers consistently have found that men and women in
relationships, both marital and premarital engage in comparable amounts of
violence." Author also writes, "Violence by women in intimate relationships
has received little attention from policy makers, the public, and until
recently, researchers...battered men and abusive women have receive 'selective
inattention' by both the media and researchers.")
Follingstad, D. R., Wright, S., & Sebastian, J. A. (1991). Sex
differences in motivations and effects in dating violence. Family Relations,
40, 51-57. (A sample of 495 college students <207 men, 288 women> completed
the CTS and other instruments including a "justification of relationship
violence measure." The study found that women were twice as likely to report
perpetrating dating violence as men. Female victims attributed male violence
to a desire to gain control over them or to retaliate for being hit first,
while men believed that female aggression was a based on their female
partner's wish to "show how angry they were and to retaliate for feeling
emotionally hurt or mistreated.")
Foo, L., & Margolin, G. (1995). A multivariate investigation of dating
aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 10, 351-377. (A sample of 290
college students <111 men, 179 women> responded to the CTS. Results reveal
that 24.3% of men and 38.5% of women reported perpetrating physical violence
toward their dating partners.)
Foshee, V. A. (1996). Gender differences in adolescent dating abuse
prevalence, types and injuries. Health Education Research, 11, (3) 275-286.
(Data collected from 1965 adolescents in eighth and ninth grade in 14 schools
in rural North Carolina. Results reveal that 36.5% of dating females and 39.4%
of dating males report being victims of physical dating violence. In terms of
perpetrating violence 27.8% of females while only 15.0% of males report
perpetrating violence.)
Gelles, R. J. (1994). Research and advocacy: Can one wear two hats?
Family Process, 33, 93-95. (Laments the absence of objectivity on the part of
"feminist" critics of research demonstrating female perpetrated domestic
violence.)
George, M. J. (1994). Riding the donkey backwards: Men as the
unacceptable victims of marital violence. Journal of Men's Studies, 3,
137-159. (A thorough review of the literature which examines findings and
issues related to men as equal victims of partner abuse.)
George, M. J. (1999). A victimization survey of female perpetrated
assaults in the United Kingdom. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 67-79. (A
representative sample of 718 men and 737 women completed the CTS and reported
their experience as victims of physical assaults by women during a five year
period. Men reported greater victimization and more severe assaults than did
women. Specifically, 14% of men compared to 7% of women reported being
assaulted by women. Highest risk group were single men. The majority (55%) of
assaults on men were perpetrated by spouses, partners, or former partners.)
George, M. J. (2002). Skimmington Revisited. Journal of Men's
Studies, 10, No. 2, 111-127. (Examines historical sources and finds that men
who were victims of spousal aggression were subject to punishment and
humiliation. Inferences to contemporary trivialization of male victims of
partner aggression is discussed.)
George, M. J. (2003). Invisible touch. Aggression & Violent
Behaviour, 8, 23-60. (A comprehensive review and analysis of female initiated
partner aggression. Historical, empirical and case evidence presented to
demonstrate reality of "battered husband syndrome.")
Goldberg, W. G., & Tomlanovich, M. C. (1984). Domestic violence
victims in the emergency department. JAMA, 251, 3259-3264. (A sample of 492
patients <275 women, 217 men> who sought treatment in an emergency department
in a Detroit hospital were survey regarding their experience with domestic
violence. Respondents were mostly African-American (78%), city dwellers
(90%), and unemployed (60%). Victims of domestic violence numbered 107
(22%). While results indicate that 38% of victims were men and 62% were women
this gender difference did not reach statistical significance.
Gonzalez, D. M. (1997). Why females initiate violence: A study
examining the reasons behind assaults on men. Unpublished master's thesis,
California State University, Long Beach. (225 college women participated in a
survey which examined their past history and their rationales for initiating
aggression with male partners. Subjects also responded to 8 conflict
scenarios which provided information regarding possible reasons for the
initiation of aggression. Results indicate that 55% of the subjects admitted
to initiating physical aggression toward their male partners at some point in
their lives. The most common reason was that aggression was a spontaneous
reaction to frustration).
Goodyear-Smith, F. A. & Laidlaw, T. M. (1999). Aggressive acts and
assaults in intimate relationships: Towards an understanding of the
literature. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 17,285-304. (An up to date
scholarly analysis of couple violence. Authors report that, ¡°...studies
clearly demonstrate that within the general population, women initiate and use
violent behaviors against their partners at least as often as men.¡±
Gray, H. M. & Foshee, V. (1997). Adolescent dating violence. Journal
of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 126-142. (A sample of 185 adolescents
responded to a questionnaire about dating violence; 77 students reported being
involved in physical violence in their current or most recent dating
relationship. Mutual violence was present in 66% of cases; while 26% of males
and 8% of females reported being victims of violence and 29% of females and 4%
of males reported being sole perpetrators of violence.)
Gryl, F. E., Stith, S. M., & Bird, G. W. (1991). Close dating
relationships among college students: differences by use of violence and by
gender. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8, 243-264. (A sample
of 280 first year college students <156 women, 124 men> at a mid-Atlantic
university completed the violence sub-scale of the Conflict Tactics Scale.
Results reveal that almost 30% of the females and 23% of males reported that
they had been violent in the current relationship. Also almost 28% of women
and 39% of men reported sustaining violence in their current relationship.)
Hampton, R. L., Gelles, R. J., & Harrop, J. W. (1989). Is violence in
families increasing? A comparison of 1975 and 1985 National Survey rates.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 969-980. (Compared a sample of 147
African Americans from the 1975 National Survey with 576 African Americans
from the 1985 National Survey with regard to spousal violence. Using the CTS
found that the rate of overall violence (169/1000) of husbands to wives
remained the same from 1975 to 1985, while the rate of overall violence for
wives to husbands increased 33% (153 to 204/1000) from 1975 to 1985. The rate
of severe violence of husbands to wives decreased 43% (113 to 64/1000) from
1975 to 1985, while the rate of severe violence of wives to husbands increased
42% (76 to 108/1000) from 1975 to 1985. In 1985 the rate of abusive violence
by black women was nearly 3 times greater than the rate of white women.)
Harned, M. S. (2002). A multivariate analysis of risk markers for
dating violence victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17,
1179-1197. (In a university sample of 874 daters <489 women, 385 men>
assessed with the revised CTS, 22% of women and 21% of men reported
experiencing physical aggression from dating partners.)
Harders, R. J., Struckman-Johnson, C., Struckman-Johnson, D. & Caraway,
S. J. (1998). Verbal and physical abuse in dating relationships. Paper
presented at the meeting of American Psychological Association, San Francisco,
CA. (Surveyed 274 college students <92 men, 182 women> using a revised formed
of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Found that women were significantly more
physically aggressive than men, particularly in the areas of: pushing,
slapping and punching.)
Headey, B., Scott, D., & de Vaus, D. (1999). Domestic violence in
Australia: Are women and men equally violent? Data from the International
Social Science Survey/ Australia 1996/97 was examined. A sample of 1643
subjects (804 men, 839 women) responded to questions about their experience
with domestic violence in the past 12 months. Results reveal that 5.7% of men
and 3.7% of women reported being victims of domestic assaults. With regard to
injuries results reveal that women inflict serious injuries at least as
frequently as men. For example 1.8% of men and 1.2% of women reported that
their injuries required first aid, while 1.5% of men and 1.1% of women
reported that their injuries needed treatment by a doctor or nurse.
Hendy, H. M., Weiner, K., Bakerofskie, J., Eggen, D., Gustitus, C., &
McLeod, K. C. (2003). Comparison of six models for violent romantic
relationships in college men and women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence,
18, 645-665. (A sample of 608 students <164 men, 444 women> were surveyed
with the Conflict Tactics Scale. Results indicate that 16% of men and 26% of
women report inflicting violence on their current romantic partner.)
Henton, J., Cate, R., Koval, J., Lloyd, S., & Christopher, S. (1983).
Romance and violence in dating relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 4,
467-482. (Surveyed 644 high school students <351 men, 293 women> and found
that abuse occurred at a rate of 121 per 1000 and appeared to be reciprocal
with both partners initiating violence at similar rates.)
Hines, D. A. & Malley-Morrison, K. (2001). Psychological effects of
partner abuse against men: a neglected research area. Psychology of Men and
Masculinity, 2, 75-85. (A review article that examines the issue of men as
victims of partner abuse. Considers reasons why men would remain in an
abusive relationship.)
Hines, D. A. & Saudino, K. J. (2003). Gender differences in
psychological, physical, and sexual aggression among college students using
the revised Conflict Tactics Scales. Violence and Victims, 18, (2) 197-217.
(A sample of 481 college students <179 men, 302 women> responded to the
revised Conflict Tactics scale. Results indicate that 29% of men and 35% of
women reported perpetrating physical aggression in their relationships.)
Hoff, B. H. (1999). The risk of serious physical injury from assault
by a woman intimate. A re-examination of National Violence against women
survey data on type of assault by an intimate.
WWW.vix.com/menmag/nvawrisk.htm. (A re-examination of the data from the most
recent National violence against women survey (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998) shows
that "assaulted men are more likely than assaulted women to experience serious
attacks by being hit with an object, beat up, threatened with a knife or being
knifed.")
Jackson, S. M., Cram, F. & Seymour, F. W. (2000). Violence and sexual
coercion in high school students' dating relationships. Journal of Family
Violence, 15, 23-36. (In a New Zealand sample of senior high school students
<200 women, 173 men> 21% of women and 19% of men reported having been
physically hurt by their heterosexual dating partner.)
Jouriles, E. N., & O'leary, K. D. (1985). Interpersonal reliability
of reports of marital violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 53, 419-421. (Used the Conflict Tactics Scale with a sample of 65
couples in marriage therapy and 37 couples from the community. Found moderate
levels of agreement of abuse between partners and similar rates of reported
violence between partners.)
Kalmuss, D. (1984). The intergenerational transmission of marital
aggression. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 11-19. (In a
representative sample of 2,143 adults found that the rate of husband to wife
severe aggression is 3.8% while the rate of wife to husband severe aggression
is 4.6%.)
Katz, J., Kuffel, S. W., & Coblentz, A. (2002). Are there gender
differences in sustaining dating violence? An examination of frequency,
severity, and relationship satisfaction. Journal of Family Violence, 17,
247-271. (Authors report two studies where dating men and women experienced
violence at comparable levels, "although men experienced more frequent
moderate violence." In the first study n=286, <183 women, 103 men> 55% of
women had nonviolent partners, while 50% of men had nonviolent partners; in
the second study n=123 <78 women, 45 men> 73% of women had nonviolent
partners, while 58% of men had nonviolent partners.)
Kaura, S. A. & Allan, C. M. (2004). Dissatisfaction with relationship
power and dating violence perpetration by men and women. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 19, 576-588. (A university sample of 352 men and 296
women completed the revised Conflict Tactics Scale. Authors report,
"Surprisingly, significantly more dating violence perpetration is reported by
women than by men.")
Kelly, L. (2003). Disabusing the definition of domestic abuse: how
women batter men and the role of the feminist state. Florida State Law
Review, 30, 791-855. (A scholarly examination of the issue of male
victimization which is critical of feminist perspectives.)
Kim, K., & Cho, Y. (1992). Epidemiological survey of spousal abuse in
Korea. In E. C. Viano (Ed.) Intimate Violence: Interdisciplinary
Perspectives. (pp. 277-282). Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis. (Utilized the
Conflict Tactics scale in interviews with a random sample of 1,316 married
Koreans <707 women, 609 men>. Compared to findings with American couples,
results indicate that Korean men were victimized by their wives twice as much
as American men, while Korean women were victimized by their spouses three
times as much as American women.)
Kim, J-Y., & Emery, C. (2003). Marital power, conflict, norm
consensus, and marital violence in a nationally representative sample of
Korean couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 197-219. (A sample of
1500 South Koreans were surveyed. Marital power, conflict and norm consensus
were correlated with marital violence. Findings reveal that the incidence of
husband to wife violence 27.8%, while wife to husband was 15.8%)
Kwong, M. J., Bartholomew, K., & Dutton, D. (1999). Gender differences
in patterns of relationship violence in Alberta. Canadian Journal of
Behavioural Science, 31, (3) 150-160. (A representative sample of men <n=356>
and women <n=351> from Alberta using the Conflict Tactics Scale, reported on
their experience of marital aggression during a one year period. Similar
levels of reported perpetration of physical violence were found, viz., husband
to wife 12.9%, wife to husband, 12.3%.)
Lane, K., & Gwartney-Gibbs, P.A. (1985). Violence in the context of
dating and sex. Journal of Family Issues, 6, 45-49. (Surveyed 325 students
<165 men, 160 women> regarding courtship violence. Used Conflict Tactics
Scale and found equal rates of violence for men and women.)
Laner, M. R., & Thompson, J. (1982). Abuse and aggression in courting
couples. Deviant Behavior, 3, 229-244. (Used Conflict Tactics Scales with a
sample of 371 single individuals <129 men, 242 women> and found similar rates
of male and female violence in dating relationships.)
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Vivian, D. (1994). The correlates of
spouses' incongruent reports of marital aggression. Journal of Family
Violence, 9, 265-283. (In a clinic sample of 97 couples seeking marital
therapy, authors found, using a modified version of the CTS, that 61% of the
husbands and 64% of the wives were classified as aggressive, 25% of the
husbands and 11% of the wives were identified as mildly aggressive and 36% of
husbands and 53% of wives were classified as severely aggressive. Sixty-eight
percent of couples were in agreement with regard to husband's overall level of
aggression and 69% of couples were in agreement on wive's overall level of
aggression. Aggression levels were identified as "nonviolent, mildly violent,
or severely violent." Where there was disagreement, 65% of husbands <n=20>
were under-reporting aggression and 35% of husbands <n=11> were over-reporting
aggression; while 57% of wives <n=17> were under-reporting aggression and 43%
of wives <n=13> were over-reporting aggression.)
Lewis, A. & Sarantakos, S. (2001). Domestic Violence and the male
victim. Nuance, #3. (Based on interviews with 48 men in Australia and New
Zealand, authors present findings that domestic violence by women toward men
exists, that the refusal to examine the prevalence of this abuse is a
"disempowerment" of men and that official policy should be changed to provide
help for abused men.)
Lillja, C. M. (1995). Why women abuse: A study examining the function
of abused men. Unpublished master's thesis, California State University, Long
Beach. (A review of the literature examining the issue of men as victims of
female assaults. Includes an original questionnaire to test assumption that
women who lack social support to combat stress are likely to commit domestic
violence.)
Lo, W. A., & Sporakowski, M. J. (1989). The continuation of violent
dating relationships among college students. Journal of College Student
Development, 30, 432-439. (A sample of 422 college students completed the
Conflict Tactics Scale. Found that, "women were more likely than men to claim
themselves as abusers and were less likely to claim themselves as victims.")
Lottes, I. L., & Weinberg, M. S. (!996). Sexual coercion among
university students: a comparison of the United States and Sweden. Journal of
Sex Research, 34, 67-76. (A sample of 507 Swedish students <211 men, 359
women> and 407 U.S. students <129 men, 278 women> responded to items on the
CTS. Results reveal that 31% of U.S. men compared to 18% of Swedish men
reported being victims of physical violence by female partners during the
previous 12 months. While 31% of U.S. women comparted to 19% of Swedish women
reported being victims of physical violence by male partners during the
previous 12 months.)
Macchietto, J. (1992). Aspects of male victimization and female
aggression: Implications for counseling men. Journal of Mental Health
Counseling, 14, 375-392. (Article reviews literature on male victimization and
female aggression.)
Magdol, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Fagan, J., Newman, D. L., &
Silva, P. A. (1997). Gender differences in partner violence in a birth cohort
of 21 year Olds: bridging the gap between clinical and epidemiological
approaches. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 68-78. (Used
CTS with a sample of 861 21 year Olds <436 men, 425 women> in New Zealand.
Physical violence perpetration was reported during the previous 12 months by
37.2% of women and 21.8% of men, with severe violence perpetration by women at
18.6% and men at 5.7%.)
Makepeace, J. M. (1986). Gender differences in courtship violence
victimization. Family Relations, 35, 383-388. (A sample of 2,338 students
<1,059 men, 1,279 women> from seven colleges were surveyed regarding their
experience of dating violence. Courtship violence was experienced by 16.7 %
of respondents. Authors report that "rates of commission of acts and
initiation of violence were similar across gender." In term of injury, both
men (98%) and women (92%) reported "none or mild" effects of violence.)
Malik, S., Sorenson, S. B., & Aneshensel, C. S. (1997). Journal of
Adolescent Health, 21, 291-302. (A sample of 707 high school students <281
boys, 426 girls> responded to the CTS. Results reveal that girls were almost
3 times more likely than boys to perpetrate dating violence. In terms of
ethnicity African-Americans had the highest level of dating violence, followed
by Latinos, whites, and Asian Americans.)
Malone, J., Tyree, A., & O'Leary, K. D. (1989). Generalization and
containment: Different effects of past aggression for wives and husbands.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 687-697. (In a sample of 328 couples
it was found that men and women engaged in similar amounts of physical
aggression within their families of origin and against their spouses. However,
results indicate that women were more aggressive to their partners than men.
Aggression was more predictable for women, i.e., if women observed parental
aggression or hit siblings they were more likely to be violent with their
spouses.)
Margolin, G. (1987). The multiple forms of aggressiveness between
marital partners: how do we identify them? Journal of Marital and Family
Therapy, 13 , 77-84. (A paid volunteer sample of 103 couples completed the
Conflict Tactics Scale. It was found that husbands and wives perpetrated
similar amounts of violence. Specifically, the incidence of violence, as
reported by either spouse was: husband to wife =39; wife to husband =41.)
Marshall, L. L., & Rose, P. (1987). Gender, stress and violence in
the adult relationships of a sample of college students. Journal of Social
and Personal Relationships, 4, 299-316. (A survey of 308 undergraduates <152
men, 156 women> revealed that 52% expressed and 62% received violence at some
point in their adult relationships. Overall, women report expressing more
physical violence than men. Childhood abuse emerged as a predictor of
violence in adult relationships.)
Marshall, L. L., & Rose, P. (1990). Premarital violence: The impact
of family of origin violence, stress and reciprocity. Violence and Victims,
5, 51-64. (454 premarital undergraduates <249 women, 205 men> completed the
CTS and other scales. Overall, women reported expressing more violence than
men, while men reported receiving more violence than women. Female violence
was also associated with having been abused as children.)
Mason, A., & Blankenship, V. (1987). Power and affiliation
motivation, stress and abuse in intimate relationships. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 203-210. (Investigated 155 college
students <48 men, 107 women> with the Thematic Apperception Test <TAT>, Life
Experiences Survey and the CTS. Found that there were no significant gender
differences in terms of the infliction of physical abuse. Men with high power
needs were more likely to be physically abusive while highly stressed women
with high needs for affiliation and low activity inhibition were the most
likely to be physically abusive. Results indicate that physical abuse
occurred most often among committed couples.)
Matthews, W. J. (1984). Violence in college couples. College Student
Journal, 18, 150-158. (A survey of 351 college students <123 men and 228
women> revealed that 79 <22.8 %> reported at least one incident of dating
violence. Both men and women ascribed joint responsibility for violent
behavior and both sexes, as either recipients or expressors of aggression,
interpreted violence as a form of "love.")
Maxfield, M. G. (1989). Circumstances in supplementary homicide
reports: Variety and validity. Criminology, 27, 671-695. (Examines FBI
homicide data from 1976 through 1985. Reports that 9,822 wives & common law
wives <57%> were killed compared to 7,433 husbands and common law husbands
<43%>).
McCarthy, A. (2001.) Gender differences in the incidences of,
motives for, and consequences of, dating violence among college students.
Unpublished Master's thesis, California State University, Long Beach. (In a
sample of 1145 students <359 men, 786 women> found that 36% of men and 28% of
women responding to the CTS2 reported that they were victims of physical
aggression during the previous year. There were no differences in reported
motives for aggression between men and women.)
McKinney, K. (1986). Measures of verbal, physical and sexual dating
violence by gender. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, 14, 55-60. (Surveyed
163 college students, 78 men, 85 women, with a questionnaire designed to
assess involvement in dating abuse. Found that 38% of women and 47% of men
indicated that they were victims of physical abuse in dating relationships.
Also found that 26% of women and 21% of men acknowledged that they physically
assaulted their dating partners.)
McLeod, M. (1984). Women against men: An examination of domestic
violence based on an analysis of official data and national victimization
data. Justice Quarterly, 1, 171-193. (From a data set of 6,200 cases of
spousal abuse in the Detroit area in 1978-79 found that men used weapons 25%
of the time while female assailants used weapons 86% of the time, 74% of men
sustained injury and of these 84% required medical care. Concludes that male
victims are injured more often and more seriously than female victims.)
McNeely, R. L., Cook, P. W. & Torres, J. B. (2001). Is domestic
violence a gender issue or a human issue? Journal of Human Behavior in the
Social Environment, 4, No. 4, 227-251. (Argues that domestic violence is a
human issue and not a gender issue. Presents and discusses empirical findings
and case studies to support this view. Expresses concerns about men's "legal
and social defenselessness.")
McNeely, R. L., & Mann, C. R. (1990). Domestic violence is a human
issue. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 129-132. (A review article which
discusses the findings that women are more prone than men to engage in
severely violent acts and that "classifying spousal violence as a women's
issue rather than a human issue is erroneous.")
McNeely, R. L., & Robinson-Simpson, G. (1987). The truth about
domestic violence: A falsely framed issue. Social Work, 32, 485-490. (A review
article which concludes that women are as violent as men in domestic
relationships.)
Mercy, J. A., & Saltzman, L. E. (1989). Fatal violence among spouses
in the United States, 1975-85. American Journal of Public Health, 79,
595-599. (Examined FBI figures regarding spousal homicides. During the 10
year period from 1975 to 1985 found higher murder rates of wives than husbands
<43.4% vs 56.6%>. Black husbands were at the greatest risk of victimization.
Spousal homicide among blacks was 8.4 times higher than that of whites.
Spouse homicide rates were 7.7 times higher in interracial marriages and the
risk of victimization for both whites and blacks increased as age differences
between spouses increased. Wives and husbands were equally likely to be
killed by firearms <approximately 72% of the time> while husbands were more
likely to be stabbed and wives more likely to bludgeoned to death. Arguments
apparently escalated to murder in 67% of spouse homicides.)
Meredith, W. H., Abbot, D. A., & Adams, S. L. (1986). Family violence
in relation to marital and parental satisfaction and family strengths.
Journal of Family Violence, 1, 299-305. (Authors report that 6% of men and 5%
of women in Nebraska indicated that they used severe violence at least once in
the previous year.)
Merrill, L. L., King, L. K., Milner, J. S., Newell, C. E., & Koss, M.
P. (1998). Premilitary intimate partner conflict resolution in a Navy basic
trainee sample. Military Psychology, 10, 1-15. (A sample of 2, 987 ,1,560
women, 1,427 men> Navy basic trainees responded to the CTS. More men <43.3%>
than women <40.3%> reported receiving physical violence from an intimate
partner, and more women <46.9%> than men <31.9%> reported at least one
instance of inflicting physical violence on an intimate partner.)
Mihalic, S. W., & Elliot, D. (1997). A social learning theory model
of marital violence. Journal of Family Violence, 12, 21-46. (Based on data
from the National Youth Survey <see Morse, 1995> a social learning model of
marital violence for men and women was tested. For men ethnicity, prior
victimization, stress and marital satisfaction predicted both perpetration and
experience of minor violence. With regard to serious violence ethnicity,
prior victimization, marital satisfaction predicted men's experience of
marital violence, while ethnicity, class and sex role attitudes predicted the
perpetration of male marital violence. For women the most important predictor
of the experience of both minor and serious marital violence was marital
satisfaction, class was also a predictor. With regard to female perpetrators
of marital violence the witnessing of parental violence was an important
predictor along with class and marital satisfaction. The social learning model
worked better for women than men.)
Milardo, R. M. (1998). Gender asymmetry in common couple violence.
Personal Relationships, 5, 423-438. (A sample of 180 college students <88
men, 72 women> were asked whether they would be likely to hit their partner in
a number of situations common to a dating relationship. Results reveal that
83% of the women, compared to 53% of the men, indicated that they would be
somewhat likely to hit their partner.)
Mirrlees-Black, C. (1999). Findings from a new British Crime Survey
self-completion questionnaire. Home Office Research, Development and
Statistics Directorate report 191. Home Office. London, HMSO. (In 1996,
16,000 completed questionnaires regarding crime victimization. Findings
reveal 4.2% of men and 4.2% of women between the ages of 16-59 reported being
physically assaulted by a current or former partner within the past year.)
Morse, B. J. (1995). Beyond the Conflict Tactics Scale: Assessing
gender differences in partner violence. Violence and Victims, 10 (4)
251-272. (Data was analyzed from the National Youth Survey, a longitudinal
study begun in 1976 with 1,725 subjects who were drawn from a probability
sample of households in the United States and who, in 1976, were between the
ages of 11-17. This study focused on violence as assessed by the CTS between
male and female married or cohabiting respondents during survey years 1983
<n=1,496>, 1986 <n=1,384>, 1989 <n=1,436>, and 1992 <n=1,340>. For each
survey year the prevalence rates of any violence and severe violence were
significantly higher for female to male than for male to female. For example,
in 1983 the rate of any violence male to female was 36.7, while the rate of
any violence female to male was 48; in 1986, the rate of severe violence male
to female was 9.5, while the rate of severe violence female to male was 22.8.
In 1992, the rate of any violence male to female was 20.2, with a severe
violence rate male to female of 5.7; while the rate of any violence female to
male was 27.9, with a severe violence rate female to male of 13.8. Author
notes that the decline in violence over time is attributed to the increase in
age of the subjects. Results reveal <p. 163> that over twice as many women as
men reported assaulting a partner who had not assaulted them during the study
year." In 1986 about 20% of both men and women reported that assaults
resulted in physical injuries. In other years women were more likely to self
report personal injuries.)
Moffitt, T. E., Robins, R. W., & Caspi, A. (2001). A couples analysis
of partner abuse with implications for abuse-prevention policy. Criminology &
Public Policy, 1, (1) 5-36. (A representative longitudinal sample of 360
young-adult couples in New Zealand completed a 13 item physical abuse scale.
Results reveal that 40% of males and 50% of females had perpetrated at least
one act of physical violence toward their partners.)
Murphy, J. E. (1988). Date abuse and forced intercourse among
college students. In G. P. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatrick, & M. A.
Straus (Eds.) Family Abuse and its Consequences: New Directions in Research
(pp. 285-296). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. (A sample of 485 single college
students <230 men, 255 women> completed the CTS. Overall men reported greater
victimization than women. For example, 20.7% of men compared to 12.8% of
women reported being kicked, bit or hit with a fist and 6% of men compared to
3.6% of women reported being beaten up by their heterosexual partner.)
Mwamwenda, T. S. (1998). Reports of husband battering from an
undergraduate sample in Umtata. Psychological Reports, 82, 517-518.
(Surveyed a sample of 138 female and 81 male college students in Transkei,
South Africa, regarding their witnessing husbanding battery. Responses reveal
that 2% of subjects saw their mother beat their father, 18% saw or heard
female relatives beating their husbands, and 26% saw or heard female neighbors
beating their husbands.)
Nicholls, T. L. & Dutton, D. G. (2001). Abuse committed by women
against male intimates. Journal of Couples Therapy, 10 (1) 41-57. (A
comprehensive review of the literature which concludes that "men are as likely
as women to be victims of intimate assaults.")
Nisonoff, L. & Bitman, I. (1979). Spouse abuse: Incidence and
relationship to selected demographic variables. Victimology, 4, 131-140.
(In a sample of 297 telephone survey respondents <112 men, 185 women> found
that 15.5% of men and 11.3% of women report having hit their spouse, while
18.6% of men and 12.7% of women report having been hit by their spouse.)
O'Keefe, M. (1997). Predictors of dating violence among high school
students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 546-568. (Surveyed 939
students <385 boys, 554 girls> ranging in age from 14-20. Sample was
ethnically diverse: 53% Latino, 20% White, 13% African-American, 6.7% Asian
American, and 7% "other." A modified version of the violence subscale of the
Conflict Tactics Scale was used to assess dating violence. Results reveal
that 43% of females and 39% of males reported that they perpetrated some form
of physical aggression on their dating partners.)
O'Keeffe, N. K., Brockopp, K., & Chew, E. (1986). Teen dating
violence. Social Work, 31, 465-468. (Surveyed 256 high school students from
Sacramento, CA., 135 girls, 121 boys, with the CTS. Ninety percent of
students were juniors or seniors, the majority came from middle class homes,
94% were average or better students, and 65% were white and 35% were black,
Hispanic or Asian. Found that 11.9% of girls compared to 7.4% of boys
admitted to being sole perpetrators of physical violence. 17.8% of girls and
11.6% of boys admitted that they were both "victims and perpetrators" of
physical violence.)
O'Leary, K. D., Barling, J., Arias, I., Rosenbaum, A., Malone, J., &
Tyree, A. (1989). Prevalence and stability of physical aggression between
spouses: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 57, 263-268. (272 couples were assessed regarding physical
aggression. More women reported physically aggressing against their partners
at premarriage <44% vs 31%> and 18 months of marriage <36% vs 27%>. At 30
months there was a nonsignificant but higher rate for women <32% vs 25%>.)
Pedersen, P. & Thomas, C. D. (1992). Prevalence and correlates of
dating violence in a Canadian University sample. Canadian Journal of
Behavioural Science, 24, 490-501. (A sample of 166 undergraduates <116 women,
50 men> responded to the CTS; 45.8% of subjects reported experiencing physical
violence in their current or most recent dating relationship. Of this total,
44.8% of women and 48% of men reported being physically aggressed upon by
their partners. It was also found that only 22% of men and 40.5% of women
reported using physical aggression against a dating partner.)
Plass, M. S., & Gessner, J. C. (1983). Violence in courtship
relations: a southern sample. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, 11,
198-202. (In an opportunity sample of 195 high school and college students
from a large southern city, researchers used the Conflict Tactics scale to
examine courtship violence. Overall, results reveal that women were
significantly more likely than men to be aggressors. Specifically, in,
committed relationships, women were three times as likely as men to slap their
partners, and to kick, bit or hit with the fist seven times as often as men.
In casual relationships, while the gender differences weren't as pronounced,
women were more aggressive than men. Other findings reveal that high school
students were more abusive than college students, and that a "higher
proportion of black respondents were involved as aggressors.")
Riggs, D. S., O'Leary, K. D., & Breslin, F. C. (1990). Multiple
correlates of physical aggression in dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 5, 61-73. (Used CTS and studied 408 college students <125 men and
283 women>. Found that significantly more women <39%> than men <23%> reported
engaging in physical aggression against their current partners.)
Rollins, B. C., & Oheneba-Sakyi, Y. (1990). Physical violence in Utah
households. Journal of Family Violence, 5, 301-309. (In a random sample of
1,471 Utah households, using the Conflict Tactics Scale, it was found that
women's rate of severe violence was 5.3% compared to a male rate of 3.4%.)
Rouse, L. P. (1988). Abuse in dating relationships: A comparison of
Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics. Journal of College Student Development, 29,
312-319. (The use of physical force and its consequences were examined in a
diverse sample of college students. Subjects consisted of 130 whites <58 men,
72 women>, 64 Blacks <32 men, 32 women>, and 34 Hispanics <24 men, 10 women>.
Men were significantly more likely than women to report that their partners
used moderate physical force and caused a greater number of injuries requiring
medical attention. This gender difference was present for Whites and Blacks
but not for Hispanics.)
Rosenfeld, R. (1997). Changing relationships between men and women.
A note on the decline in intimate partner violence. Homicide Studies, 1,
72-83. (Author reports on homicide rates in ST. Louis from 1968-1992.
Findings indicate that while men and women were equally likely to be victims
of partner violence in 1970, in subsequent years men, primarily black men,
were more likely to be murdered by their intimate partners.)
Rouse, L. P., Breen, R., & Howell, M. (1988). Abuse in intimate
relationships. A Comparison of married and dating college students. Journal
of Interpersonal Violence, 3, 414-429. (A sample of 130 married (48 men, 82
women) college students and 130 college students in dating relationships (58
men, 72 women) reported their experience of physical abuse in intimate
relationships. Men were more likely to report being physically abused than
women in both dating and marital relationships.)
Russell, R. J. H., & Hulson, B. (1992). Physical and psychological
abuse of heterosexual partners. Personality and Individual Differences, 13,
457-473. (In a pilot study in Great Britain 46 couples responded to the
Conflict Tactics Scale. Results reveal that husband to wife violence was:
Overall violence= 25% and severe violence= 5.8%; while wife to husband
violence was: Overall violence= 25% and severe violence=11.3%.)
Ryan, K. A. (1998). The relationship between courtship violence and
sexual aggression in college students. Journal of Family Violence, 13,
377-394. (A sample of 656 college students <245 men, 411 women> completed the
CTS. Thirty four percent of the women and 40% of the men reported being
victims of their partner's physical aggression.)
Sack, A. R., Keller, J. F., & Howard, R. D. (1982). Conflict tactics
and violence in dating situations. International Journal of Sociology of the
Family, 12, 89-100. (Used the CTS with a sample of 211 college students, 92
men, 119 women. Results indicate that there were no differences between men
and women with regard to the expression of physical violence.)
Saenger, G. (1963). Male and female relations in the American comic
strip. In D. M. White & R. H. Abel (Eds.), The funnies, an American idiom
(pp. 219-231). Glencoe, NY: The Free Press. (Twenty consecutive editions of
all comic strips in nine New York City newspapers in October, 1950 were
examined. Results reveal that husbands were victims of aggression in 63% of
conflict situations while wives were victims in 39% of situations. In
addition, wives were more aggressive in 73% of domestic situations, in 10% of
situations, husbands and wives were equally aggressive and in only 17% of
situations were husbands more violent than wives.)
Schafer, J., Caetano, R., & Clark, C. L. (1998). Rates of intimate
partner violence in the United States. American journal of Public Health, 88,
1702-1704. (Used modified CTS and examined reports of partner violence in a
representative sample of 1635 married and cohabiting couples. Both partners
reports were used to estimate the following lower and upper bound rates: 5.21%
and 13.61% for male to female violence, and 6.22% and 18.21 % for female to
male violence.)
Sharpe, D., & Taylor, J. K. (1999). An examination of variables from a
social-developmental model to explain physical and psychological dating
violence. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31:3, 165-175. (Canadian
college students <110 men, 225 women> were surveyed with the Conflict Tactics
Scale regarding dating violence. Results reveal that 38% of men and 27% of
women report receiving physical violence from their partners. Twice as many
women compared to men reported inflicting violence without receiving physical
violence from dating partners.)
Shook, N. J., Gerrity, D. A., Jurich, J. & Segrist, A. E. (2000).
Courtship violence among college students: A comparison of verbally and
physically abusive couples. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 1-22. (A
modified Conflict Tactics Scale was administered to 572 college students <395
women; 177 men>. Results reveal that significantly more women than men, 23.5%
vs 13.0%, admitted using physical force against a dating partner.)
Sigelman, C. K., Berry, C. J., & Wiles, K. A. (1984). Violence in
college students' dating relationships. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
5, 530-548. (Surveyed 504 college students <116 men, 388 women> with the
Conflict Tactics Scale and found that men and women were similar in the
overall amount of violence they expressed but that men reported experiencing
significantly more violence than women.)
Simonelli, C. J. & Ingram, K. M. (1998). Psychological distress among
men experiencing physical and emotional abuse in heterosexual dating
relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 667-681. (Responses from
70 male undergraduates to the CTS and a Psychological Maltreatment Inventory
revealed that 40% reported being the target of some form of physical
aggression from their female dating partners while only 23% reported
expressing physical aggression to their partners. Men who were victims of
emotional and physical abuse also reported greater levels of distress and
depression.)
Simonelli, C. J., Mullis, T., Elliot, A. N., & Pierce, T. W. (2002).
Abuse by siblings and subsequent experiences of violence within the dating
relationship. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 103-121. (A sample of 120
undergraduates <61 men, 59 women> completed the CTS. Ten percent of men and
33% of women reported that they perpetrated at least one type of physical
aggressive behavior against their dating partner and 18% of men and 15% of
women reported receiving physical aggression from their dating partner.)
Sommer, R. (1994). Male and female partner abuse: Testing a
diathesis-stress model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. (The study was in two waves: the first was from
1989-1990 and included a random sample of 452 married or cohabiting women and
447 married or cohabiting men from Winnipeg, Canada; the second was from
1991-1992 and included 368 women and 369 men all of whom participated in the
first wave. Subjects completed the CTS & other assessment instruments. 39.1%
of women reported being physically aggressive (16.2% reporting having
perpetrated severe violence) at some point in their relationship with their
male partner. While 26.3% of men reported being physically aggressive (with
7.6% reporting perpetrating severe violence) at some point in their
relationship with their female partner. Among the perpetrators of partner
abuse, 34.8% of men and 40.1% of women reported observing their mothers
hitting their fathers. Results indicate that 21% of "males' and 13% of
females' partners required medical attention as a result of a partner abuse
incident." Results also indicate that "10% of women and 15% of men perpetrated
partner abuse in self defense.")
Sommer, R., Barnes, G. E. & Murray, R. P. (1992). Alcohol
consumption, alcohol abuse, personality and female perpetrated spouse abuse.
Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1315-1323. (The
responses from a subsample of 452 women drawn from a sample of 1,257 Winnipeg
residents were analyzed. Using the CTS, it was found that 39% of women
physically aggressed against their male partners at some point in their
relationship. Younger women with high scores on Eysenck's P scale were most
likely to perpetrate violence. Note: The sample of subjects is the same as
the one cited in Sommer's 1994 dissertation.)
Sorenson, S. B., & Telles, C. A. (1991). Self reports of spousal
violence in a Mexican-American and non-Hispanic white population. Violence
and Victims, 6, 3-15. (Surveyed 1,243 Mexican-Americans and 1,149 non-Hispanic
whites and found that women compared to men reported higher rates of hitting,
throwing objects, initiating violence, and striking first more than once.
Gender difference was significant only for non-Hispanic whites.)
Sorenson, S. B., Upchurch, D. M., & Shen, H. (1996). Violence and
injury in marital arguments: risk patterns and gender differences. American
Journal of Public Health, 66(1), 35-40. (Data analysis was based on findings
from the National Survey of Families and Households conducted in 1987-88.
Subjects included 6779 currently married White, Black and Hispanic individuals
who completed a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Authors
report that, "women <6.2% vs 4.9%> were slightly more likely than men to
report that they had hit, shoved or thrown something at their spouse in the
previous year." Women also reported higher rates of causing injury than did
men. Other findings of note: 1) Blacks were 1.58 times more likely and
Hispanics 0.53 times less likely than Whites to report that physical violence
occurred in their relationship; 2) Subjects under 30 reported more violence
and those above 50 reported less violence; 3) lower annual income was
associated with higher rates of physical violence.)
Spencer, G. A., & Bryant, S. A. (2000). Dating violence: A
comparison of rural, suburban and urban teens. Journal of Adolescent Health,
25 (5) 302-305. (A sample of 2094 high school students in upper New York
State indicated their experience of physical dating violence. There were a
similar number of boys and girls surveyed, with more subjects from urban areas
than rural or suburban areas. The majority of subjects were white
non-Hispanic. Males in each region were more likely to report being victims
of physical dating violence than females in each region. Specifically, 30% of
rural boys and 20% of urban and 20% of suburban boys reported being victims of
partner physical aggression while 25% of rural girls and 16% of suburban and
13% of urban girls reported victimization.)
Steinmetz, S. K. (1977-78). The battered husband syndrome.
Victimology: An International Journal, 2, 499-509. (A pioneering article
suggesting that the incidence of husband beating was similar to the incidence
of wife beating.)
Steinmetz, S. K. (1980). Women and violence: victims and
perpetrators. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 34, 334-350. (Examines the
apparent contradiction in women's role as victim and perpetrator in domestic
violence.)
Steinmetz, S. K. (1981). A cross cultural comparison of marital
abuse. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 8, 404-414. (Using a
modified version of the CTS, examined marital violence in small samples from
six societies: Finland, United States, Canada, Puerto Rico, Belize, and Israel
<total n=630>. Found that "in each society the percentage of husbands who
used violence was similar to the percentage of violent wives." The major
exception was Puerto Rico where men were more violent. Author also reports
that, "Wives who used violence... tended to use greater amounts.")
Stets, J. E. & Henderson, D. A. (1991). Contextual factors
surrounding conflict resolution while dating: results from a national study.
Family Relations, 40, 29-40. (Drawn from a random national telephone survey,
daters <n=277; men=149, women=128> between the ages of 18 and 30, who were
single, never married and in a relationship during the past year which lasted
at least two months with at least six dates were examined with the Conflict
Tactics Scale. Findings reveal that over 30% of subjects used physical
aggression in their relationships, with 22% of the men and 40% of the women
reported using some form of physical aggression. Women were "6 times more
likely than men to use severe aggression <19.2% vs. 3.4%>...Men were twice as
likely as women to report receiving severe aggression <15.7% vs. 8%>." Also
found that younger subjects and those of lower socioeconomic status <SES> were
more likely to use physical aggression.)
Stets, J. E., & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1987). Violence in dating
relationships, Social Psychology Quarterly, 50, 237-246. (Examined a college
sample of 505 white students. Found that men and women were similar in both
their use and reception of violence. Jealousy was a factor in explaining
dating violence for women.)
Stets, J. E. & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1989). Patterns of physical and
sexual abuse for men and women in dating relationships: A descriptive
analysis, Journal of Family Violence, 4, 63-76. (Examined a sample of 287
college students <118 men and 169 women> and found similar rates for men and
women of low level physical abuse in dating relationships. More women than
men were pushed or shoved <24% vs 10%> while more men than women were slapped
<12% vs 8%>. In term of unwanted sexual contact 22% of men and 36% of women
reported such behavior. The most frequent category for both men <18%> and
women <19%> was the item, "against my will my partner initiated necking".)
Stets, J. E., & Straus, M. A. (1990). Gender differences in
reporting marital violence and its medical and psychological consequences. In
M. A. Straus & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families:
Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 151-166). New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (Reports information regarding the initiation of
violence. In a sample of 297 men and 428 women, men said they struck the
first blow in 43.7% of cases, and their partner hit first in 44.1% of cases
and could not disentangle who hit first in remaining 12.2%. Women report
hitting first in 52.7% of cases, their partners in 42.6% and could not
disentangle who hit first in remaining 4.7%. Authors conclude that violence
by women is not primarily defensive.)
Straus, M. (1980). Victims and aggressors in marital violence.
American Behavioral Scientist, 23, 681-704. (Reviews data from the 1975
National Survey. Examined a subsample of 325 violent couples and found that
in 49.5% of cases both husbands and wives committed at least one violent act,
while husbands alone were violent in 27.7% of the cases and wives alone were
violent in 22.7% of the cases. Found that 148 violent husbands had an average
number of 7.1 aggressive acts per year while the 177 violent wives averaged
6.8 aggressive acts per year.)
Straus, M. A. (1995). Trends in cultural norms and rates of partner
violence: An update to 1992. In S. M. Stich & M. A. Straus (Eds.)
Understanding partner violence: Prevalence, causes, consequences, and
solutions (pp. 30-33). Minneapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations.
(Reports finding that while the approval of a husband slapping his wife
declined dramatically from 1968 to 1994 <21% to 10%> the approval of a wife
slapping her husband did not decline but remained at 22% during the same
period. The most frequently mentioned reason for slapping for both partners
was sexual unfaithfulness. Also reports that severe physical assaults by men
declined by 48% from 1975 to 1992--38/1000 to 19/1000 while severe assaults by
women did not change from 1975 to 1992 and remained above 40/1000. Suggests
that public service announcements should be directed at female perpetrated
violence and that school based programs "explicitly recognize and condemn
violence by girls as well as boys.")
Straus, M. A. (1998). The controversy over domestic violence by women:
A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. Paper
presented at Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology, Claremont, CA.
(Examines issue of differential rates of assaults between crime studies and
couple conflict studies. Provides a sociological explanation to account for
assaults by women within the family.)
Straus, M. A. (2001). Prevalence of violence against dating partners
by male and female university students worldwide. Violence Against Women, 10,
790-811. (Dating aggression was studied at 31 universities in 16 countries
worldwide. Responding to the revised Conflict Tactics Scale were 8666
students <5919 women, 2747 men>. Results reveal that overall 25% of men and
28% of women assaulted their dating partner in the past year. At 21 of the 31
universities studied a larger percentage of women than men assaulted their
dating partner. In terms of severe assaults a higher rate of perpetration by
women occurred in a majority (18 of the 31) of the sites.)
Straus, M. A. (2005). Women's violence toward men is a serious social
problem. In D. R. Loseke, R. J. Gelles, & M. M. Cavanaugh (Eds.), Current
Controversies on Family Violence, 2nd Edition, (pp. 55-77). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage. (A scholarly review of research showing that women initiate
physical assaults on their male partners as frequently as men assault women.
Examines the fact that injuries and fatalities result from such violence.)
Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1986). Societal change and change in
family violence from 1975 to 1985 as revealed by two national surveys.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 465-479. (Reviewed data from two large
sample national violence surveys of married couples and report that men and
women assaulted each other at approximately equally rates, with women engaging
in minor acts of violence at a higher rate than men. Sample size in 1975
survey=2,143; sample size in 1985 survey=6,002.)
Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1981). Behind
closed doors: Violence in the American family, Garden City, NJ: Anchor.
(Reports findings from National Family Violence survey conducted in 1975. In
terms of religion, found that Jewish men had the lowest rates of abusive
spousal violence (1%), while Jewish women had a rate of abusive spousal
violence which was more than double the rate for Protestant women <7%>, pp.
128-133. Abusive violence was defined as an "act which has a high potential
for injuring the person being hit," pp.21-2.)
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B.
(1996). The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2). Development and
preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283-316. (The
revised CTS has clearer differentiation between minor and severe violence and
new scales to measure sexual coercion and physical injury. Used the CTS2 with
a sample of 317 college students <114 men, 203 women> and found that: 49% of
men and 31% of women reported being a victim of physical assault by their
partner; 38% of men and 30% of women reported being a victim of sexual
coercion by their partner; and 16% of men and 14% of women reported being
seriously injured by their partners.)
Straus, M. A., & Kaufman Kantor, G. (1994, July). Change in spouse
assault rates from 1975-1992: A comparison of three national surveys in the
United States. Paper presented at the Thirteenth World Congress of Sociology,
Bielefeld, Germany. (Reports that the trend of decreasing severe assaults by
husbands found in the National Survey from 1975 to 1985 has continued in the
1992 survey while wives maintained higher rates of assault.)
Straus, M. A., Kaufman Kantor, G., & Moore, D. W. (1994, August).
Change in cultural norms approving marital violence from 1968 to 1994. Paper
presented at the American Sociological Association, Los Angeles, CA.
(Compared surveys conducted in 1968 <n=1,176>, 1985 <n=6,002>, 1992 <n=1,970>,
and 1994 <n=524>, with regard to the approval of facial slapping by a spouse.
Approval of slapping by husbands decreased from 21% in 1968 to 13% in 1985, to
12% in 1992, to 10% in 1994. The approval of slapping by wives was 22% in
1968 and has not declined over the years.)
Straus, M. A., & Medeiros, R. A. (2002, November). Gender differences
in risk factors for physical violence between dating partners by university
students. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Society for
Criminology, Chicago, Illinois. (A sample of 232 men and 334 women responded
to revised CTS. Results indicate that for minor violence the rates for both
men and women are 22% and for severe violence rates are 10% for men and 11%
for women.)
Straus, M. A., & Mouradian, V. E. (1999, November). Preliminary
psychometric data for the Personal Relationships Profile (PRP): A multi-scale
tool for clinical screening and research on partner violence. Paper presented
at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Toronto,
Canada. (In a study of 1,034 dating couples at two US universities, injury
rates based on responses to the revised CTS (CTS2) revealed that 9.9% of men
and 9.4% of women report being injured by the opposite sex. In terms of
inflicting injuries, 10.1% men and 8.0% women indicated that they inflicted
injuries on their partners.)
Straus, M. A., & Ramirez, I. L. (2002, July). Gender symmetry in
prevalence, severity, and chronicity of physical aggression against dating
partners by university students in Mexico and USA. Paper presented at the XV
World Meeting of the International Society for Research on Aggression,
Montreal, Canada. Available at: http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/. (Reports findings from four samples of
university students in Juarez, Mexico, El Paso and Lubbock, Texas, and New
Hampshire. Subjects (N=1,554) responded to the revised Conflict Tactics
Scale. Results indicate that there were no significant differences between
males and females in either the overall prevalence of physical aggression or
the prevalence of severe attacks. However, when only one partner was violent
it was twice as likely to be the female than the male <19.0% vs 9.8%>.
Moreover, in terms of severe aggression females were twice as likely to be
violent than men <29.8% vs 13.7%>).
Sugarman, D. B., & Hotaling, G. T. (1989). Dating violence:
Prevalence, context, and risk markers. In M. A. Pirog-Good & J. E. Stets
(Eds.) Violence in dating relationships: Emerging social issues (pp.3-32).
New York: Praeger. (Reviewed 21 studies of dating behavior and found that
women reported having expressed violence at higher rates than men--329 per
1000 vs 393 per 1000.)
Szinovacz, M. E. (1983). Using couple data as a methodological tool:
The case of marital violence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45,
633-644. (Used Conflict Tactics Scale with 103 couples and found that the
wives' rates of physical aggression was somewhat higher than husbands'.)
Tang, C. S. (1994). Prevalence of spouse aggression in Hong Kong.
Journal of Family Violence, 9, 347-356. (Subjects were 382 undergraduates
<246 women, 136 men> at the Chinese University in Hong Kong. The CTS was used
to assess students' evaluation of their parents responses during family
conflict. 14% of students reported that their parents engaged in physical
violence. "Mothers were as likely as fathers to use actual physical force
toward their spouses.")
Thompson Jr., E. H. (1990). Courtship violence and the male role.
Men's Studies Review, 7, (3) 1, 4-13. (Subjects were 336 undergraduates <167
men, 169 women> who completed a modified version of the CTS. Found that 24.6%
of men compared to 28.4% of women expressed physical violence toward their
dating partners within the past two years. Found that women were twice as
likely as men to slap their partners.)
Thompson Jr., E. H. (1991). The maleness of violence in data
relationships: an appraisal of stereotypes. Sex Roles, 24, 261-278. (In a
more extensive presentation of his 1990 article, the author concludes that, "a
more masculine and/or less feminine gender orientation and variations in
relationship seriousness proved to be the two strongest predictors of both
men's and women's involvement in courtship violence.")
Tyree, A., & Malone, J. (1991). How can it be that wives hit husbands
as much as husbands hit wives and none of us knew it? Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. (Reviews the
literature and discusses results from their study attempting to predict
spousal violence. Found that women's violence is correlated with a history of
hitting siblings and a desire to improve contact with partners.)
Vivian, D., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (1996). Are bi-directionally
violent couples mutually victimized? In L. K. Hamberger & C. Renzetti (Eds.)
Domestic partner abuse (pp. 23-52). New York: Springer. (Authors found using
a modified version of the CTS, that in a sample of 57 mutually aggressive
couples, there were no significant differences between husbands' and wives'
reports concerning the frequency and severity of assault victimization. With
regard to injuries, 32 wives and 25 husbands reported the presence of a
physical injury which resulted from partner aggression.)
Waiping, A. L., & Sporakowski, M. J. (1989). The continuation of
violent dating relationships among college students. Journal of College
Student Development, 30, 432-439. (Using a modified version of the CTS,
authors examined courtship violence in a sample of 422 college students <227
women, 195 men>. Women more often than men <35.3% vs 20.3%> indicated that
they physically abused their partners.)
White, J. W., & Humphrey, (1994). Women's aggression in heterosexual
conflicts. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 195-202. (Eight hundred and twenty nine
women <representing 84% of entering class of women> 17 and 18 years old,
entering the university for the first time completed the CTS and other
assessment instruments. Results reveal that 51.5% of subjects used physical
aggression at least once in their prior dating relationships and, in the past
year, 30.2% reported physically aggressing against their male partners. Past
use of physical aggression was the best predictor of current aggression. The
witnessing and experiencing of parental aggression also predicted present
aggression.)
White, J. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (1994). Deconstructing the myth of the
nonaggressive woman: A feminist analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18,
487-508. (A review and analysis which acknowledges that "women equal or exceed
men in number of reported aggressive acts committed within the family."
Examines a variety of explanations to account for such aggression.)
White, J. W., & Koss, M. P. (1991). Courtship violence: Incidence in
a national sample of higher education students. Violence and Victims, 6,
247-256. (In a representative sample of 2,603 women and 2,105 men it was
found that 37% of the men and 35% of women inflicted some form of physical
aggression, while 39% of the men and 32% of the women received some form of
physical aggression.)
Wilson, M. I. & Daley, M. (1992). Who kills whom in spouse killings?
On the exceptional sex ratio of spousal homicides in the United States.
Criminology, 30, 189-215. (Authors summarize research which indicates that
between 1976 and 1985, for every 100 men who killed their wives, about 75
women killed their husbands. Authors report original data from a number of
cities, e.g., Chicago, Detroit, Houston, where the ratio of wives as
perpetrators exceeds that of husbands.)
Portions of this paper were presented at the American Psychological
Society Convention in Washington, D.C. May 24, 1997.
Earlier versions of this paper appeared in Sexuality and Culture, 1997,
1, 273-286, and Sexuality and Culture, 2004, 8, (No. 3-4), 140-177.
Copyright, 2005. Martin S. Fiebert